ElasticPot

Briand, Aristide

2005-10-16T20:50:00.000-07:00

As a law student, Briand became associated with left-wing causes,

Water Snake

2005-07-27T23:30:00.000-07:00

Any member of the genus Natrix, family Colubridae, and similar snakes. The 65 to 80 species of Natrix occur on all continents except South America. Some authorities place the New World species in several genera, the largest of which is Nerodia. Most water snakes have dark blotches or dorsal streaks on their stout bodies, and the scales are keeled. They are semiaquatic, preying

Hinn Island

2005-07-23T17:35:00.000-07:00

Norwegian Hinnøya island, in the Norwegian Sea, northern Norway. Forming part of the Vesterålen group and with an area of 849 square miles (2,198 square km), it is Norway's second largest island after Spitsbergen (principal island of Svalbard). It is divided between Nordland and Troms fylker (counties) and separated from the mainland by the narrow Tjeld Strait. Irregularly shaped and deeply indented

Tarsal

2005-07-08T15:05:00.000-07:00

Any of several short, angular bones that in humans make up the ankle and that—in animals that walk on their toes (e.g., dogs, cats) or on hoofs—are contained in the hock, lifted off the ground. The tarsals correspond to the carpal bones of the upper limb. In humans the tarsals, in combination with the metatarsal bones, form a longitudinal arch in the foot—a shape well adapted for

World War I, The Serbian campaign, 1914

2005-07-06T19:25:00.000-07:00

The first Austrian invasion of Serbia was launched with numerical inferiority (part of one of the armies originally destined for the Balkan front having been diverted to the Eastern Front on August 18); and the able Serbian commander, Radomir Putnik, brought the invasion to an early end by his victories on the Cer Mountain (August 15–20) and at Šabac (August 21–24). In early September,

Wolin

2005-06-30T21:15:00.000-07:00

Island off the northwestern coast of Poland, in Szczecin województwo (province). It is surrounded by the Baltic Sea on the north, the Dziwna River on the east, the Szczecinski Lagoon on the south, and the Swina River on the west. Its area is 95 square miles (245 square km). The main towns are Wolin in the south and Miedzyzdroje in the north. The central area contains the Wolin National

Chattanooga, Battle Of

2005-06-23T03:35:00.000-07:00

(November 23–25, 1863), in the American Civil War, a decisive engagement fought at Chattanooga on the Tennessee River in late November 1863, which contributed significantly to victory for the North. Chattanooga had strategic importance as a vital railroad junction for the Confederacy. In September 1863 a Federal army led by General William S. Rosecrans was besieged there by a Southern

Aznar, José María

2005-06-21T09:20:00.000-07:00

In 1975, during Spain's transition to democracy, José Marí

Narrator

2005-06-16T00:50:00.000-07:00

A work may have more than one narrator, as in an epistolary novel such as Samuel Richardson's

Andrew, Saint

2005-06-13T07:40:00.000-07:00

In the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), Peter and Andrew—whose Greek name means “Manly”—were called from their fishing by Jesus to follow him, promising that he would make them fishers of men. With Saints Peter, James, and John,

Wampum

2005-06-01T17:10:00.000-07:00

Tubular shell beads that have been assembled into strings or woven into belts or embroidered ornaments, formerly used as a medium of exchange by some North American Indians. The terms wampum and wampumpeag were initially adopted by English settlers, who derived them from one of the eastern Algonquian languages; literally translated, wampumpeag means “strings

Turgenev, Nikolay Ivanovich

2005-05-18T07:30:00.000-07:00

Born into the middle class, Turgenev was one of a number of Russian youths infected by the liberal spirit that emerged in Europe after the French

Daniell, John Frederic

2005-05-16T00:50:00.000-07:00

In 1820 Daniell invented a dew-point hygrometer (a device that indicates atmospheric humidity), which came into widespread use. In his Meteorological Essays and Observations (1823), Daniell

Boie, Heinrich Christian

2005-05-14T10:35:00.000-07:00

After studying theology and law at the University of Jena, with Christian W. von Dohm, Boie founded the literary journal Deutsches Museum (1776; in 1789 renamed Neues Deutsches Museum). In 1776 he began a career in government that was concurrent with his literary activities.

Cheju

2005-03-15T09:35:00.000-08:00

City and provincial capital, Cheju do (province), on the northern coast of Cheju Island, off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the island's largest city and has its only airport, which handles both domestic and international flights. The political, commercial, and cultural centre of the island since it was an independent kingdom in ancient times, it developed as

World War I, Mesopotamia, summer 1916 - winter 1917

2005-03-14T17:45:00.000-08:00

The British forces in Mesopotamia, neglected hitherto and discouraged by the disaster at al-Kut (see above Mesopotamia, 1914 - April 1916), received better attention from London in the second half of 1916; and Sir Frederick Stanley Maude, who became commander in chief in August, did so much to restore their morale that by December he was ready to undertake the recapture of al-Kut as a first

Lihue

2005-03-11T21:13:00.000-08:00

City, seat of Kauai county, in southeastern Kauai Island, Hawaii, U.S. It is the island's chief port and its cultural and business centre. Sugarcane became the locality's economic mainstay with the foundation of the Lihue Sugar Plantation (1849) by German colonists. The Germans built a Lutheran church (1883), a fusion of classical New England architecture and Bavarian Baroque. The

Haavelmo, Trygve

2005-03-04T07:54:00.000-08:00

After the outbreak of World War II, Haavelmo left Norway and delivered his doctoral dissertation, �The Probability Approach in Econometrics,� at Harvard University in 1941. Although he had two doctorates

Dual Alliance

2005-03-03T08:06:00.000-08:00

Also called �Franco-russian Alliance, � a political and military pact that developed between France and Russia from friendly contacts in 1891 to a secret treaty in 1894; it became one of the basic European alignments of the pre-World War I era. Germany, assuming that ideological differences and lack of common interest would keep republican France and tsarist Russia apart, allowed its Reinsurance Treaty (q.v.) with

China, Fine arts

2005-03-02T01:48:00.000-08:00

In the realm of the arts, the Ming period has long been esteemed for the variety and high quality of its state-sponsored craft goods - cloisonn� and, particularly, porcelain wares. The sober, delicate monochrome porcelains of the Sung dynasty were now superseded by rich, decorative polychrome wares. The best known of these are of blue-on-white decor, which gradually changed

Nicholas Ii

2005-03-01T08:45:00.000-08:00

Russian in full �Nikolay Aleksandrovich� the last Russian emperor (1895 - 1917), who, with his wife, Alexandra, and their children, was killed by the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution.

Earth, Seismology: wave-velocity and density distributions

2005-02-28T06:25:00.000-08:00

The main difficulty with studying the Earth's interior is apparent from Figure 15 . Rock fragments (called xenoliths) are brought up volcanically from depth, thus providing samples of the upper mantle. These samples, however, seem to originate at depths no greater than 150 to 200 kilometres. Therefore, the material making up more than 90 percent of the interior is inaccessible

Rouergue

2005-02-27T07:34:00.000-08:00

Ancient province of south central France, corresponding to much of the modern d�partements of Aveyron and Tarn-et-Garonne. It was bounded on the north by Auvergne, on the south and southwest by Languedoc, on the east by G�vaudan and the C�vennes mountains, and on the west by Quercy. It derived its name from the Gallic tribe of Rutheni. Administratively it formed first

Lamb, Willis Eugene, Jr.

2005-02-26T04:01:00.000-08:00

Lamb joined the faculty of Columbia University, New York City, in 1938 and worked in the Radiation Laboratory there during World War II. Though the quantum

Oberfranken

2005-02-25T00:18:00.000-08:00

English �Upper Franconia� Regierungsbezirk (administrative district), northeastern Bavaria Land (state), east-central Germany. Oberfranken is bordered by Thuringia and Saxony L�nder to the north, the Czech Republic to the east, and the Regierungsbezirke of Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate) to the southeast, Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia) to the south, and Unterfranken (Lower Franconia) to the

Shamanism, Basic tasks

2005-02-24T05:42:00.000-08:00

It is the obligation of the shaman to know all matters that human beings need to know in everyday life but are unable to learn through their own capacities. He foresees events distant in time and space, discovers the place of a lost animal, forecasts prospects for fishing and hunting, and assists in increasing the gain. Besides these everyday functions, he is a healer

Lusaka

2005-02-23T21:29:00.000-08:00

City and capital of Zambia. It is situated in the south-central part of the country on a limestone plateau 4,198 feet (1,280 m) above sea level. In the 1890s the area in which Lusaka is situated was taken over by the British South Africa Company from the local chiefs in the course of the formation of Northern Rhodesia, with control passing to the British Colonial Office in 1924. Lusaka became

Henrietta Maria

2005-02-22T07:43:00.000-08:00

Henrietta

Dahna', Ad-

2005-02-21T03:35:00.000-08:00

(Arabic: �desert�), great arc of reddish sandy desert, central Saudi Arabia, extending about 800 miles (1,300 km) southward from the northeastern edge of an-Nafud (desert) to the northwestern borders of the desert Rub' al-Khali (the Empty Quarter). Thus, ad-Dahna' links the great deserts of Saudi Arabia. It consists of seven major sand ridges, which are separated from one another by plains. It

Sundiata

2005-02-20T01:34:00.000-08:00

Sundiata was a Mandingo from the small kingdom of Kangaba, near the present Mali - Guinea border. Little is known about his early life. Mandingo oral traditions

Insurance, Inland marine insurance

2005-02-19T03:17:00.000-08:00

Although there are no standard forms in inland marine insurance, most contracts follow a typical pattern. They are usually written on a named-peril basis covering such perils of transportation as collision, derailment, rising water, tornado, fire, lightning, and windstorm. The policies generally exclude losses resulting from pilferage, strike, riot, civil commotion,

Insurance, Inland marine insurance

2005-02-18T02:26:00.000-08:00

Earth Sciences, Glacier motion and the high-latitude ice sheets

2005-02-17T01:45:00.000-08:00

Beginning around 1948, principles and techniques in metallurgy and solid-state physics were brought to bear on the mechanics of glacial movements. Laboratory studies showed that glacial ice deforms like other crystalline solids (such as metals) at temperatures near the melting point. Continued stress produces permanent deformation. In addition to plastic deformation

Amp�re, Andr�-marie

2005-02-16T05:17:00.000-08:00

Amp�re was a prodigy who mastered all mathematics then extant by the time he was 12 years old. He became a professor of physics and chemistry at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1801 and a professor of mathematics at the �cole Polytechnique in Paris in

Leningrad

2005-02-15T14:52:00.000-08:00

Oblast (province), northwestern Russia. It comprises all the Karelian Isthmus and the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland as far west as Narva. It extends eastward along the southern shore of Lake Ladoga and the Svir River as far as Lake Onega. In the north the Karelian Isthmus consists of long, winding morainic hills, separated by hollows with lakes and swamps. In the

Qantas Airways Limited

2005-02-14T17:12:00.000-08:00

Australian airline, the oldest in the English-speaking world, founded in 1920 as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd. (from which the name Qantas was derived). Its first operations were taxi services and joy flights. By the late 20th century, however, its scheduled air routes extended throughout Australasia and farther termini of San Francisco and Vancouver;

Bacau

2005-02-13T11:28:00.000-08:00

Judet(county), eastern Romania, occupying an area of 2,551 sq mi (6,606 sq km). The Eastern Carpathians and the sub-Carpathians rise above the settlement areas that are situated in intermontane valleys and lowlands. The county is drained southeastward by the Siret River and its tributaries. It was formerly included in feudal Moldavia. Manufactures of Bacau (q.v.) city, the county capital,

X Ray

2005-02-12T14:37:00.000-08:00

There are two methods in general use for detecting X rays. The first method relies on the X rays producing a photochemical change in a photographic emulsion. The blackening of the film is related to the

West Chester

2005-02-11T08:37:00.000-08:00

Borough (town), seat (1786) of Chester county, southeastern Pennsylvania, U.S. It lies 27 miles (43 km) west of Philadelphia. Settlement began in the early 1700s, and Turk's Head Inn was established there in 1761; but the town's growth was delayed by a prolonged dispute with Chester (now in Delaware county) over the permanent location of the county seat. During the American Revolution, the Battle

Devonshire, William Cavendish, 1st Earl Of, Baron Cavendish Of Hardwick

2005-02-10T19:33:00.000-08:00

The son of Sir William Cavendish and his third wife, Elizabeth Hardwick (afterward the Countess of Shrewsbury), the young Cavendish was educated at Eton College and Gray's Inn and was knighted in 1580 and created a baron in 1605. In 1608 he inherited a rich estate from his mother and later became

Obbligato

2005-02-09T05:52:00.000-08:00

(Italian: �obligatory�), in music, essential but subordinate instrumental part. For example, in an 18th-century aria with trumpet obbligato, the trumpet part, although serving as accompaniment to the voice, may be as brilliant in its writing as that of the voice itself. The term obbligato accompaniment has a more specialized meaning in some 18th-century music (see accompaniment

Dieulafoy, Marcel-auguste

2005-02-08T14:53:00.000-08:00

Dieulafoy's published works include L'Art antique de la Perse, 5 vol. (1884 - 89; �The Ancient

S�r-tr�ndelag

2005-02-07T19:28:00.000-08:00

Fylke (county), central Norway. It extends from the Swedish border (east) to the coast of the Norwegian Sea (west). The mouth of the deeply indented Trondheim Fjord lies in the northern part of the fylke; parts of the Dovre Mountains are in the south. Adjacent to the Norwegian Sea coast are the large islands of Hitra and Fr�ya. The fylke's economy is based on fishing and agriculture

Radek, Karl (bernhardovich)

2005-02-06T13:32:00.000-08:00

A member of a Galician Jewish family, Radek attended the universities of Krak�w and Bern. Having joined the Social Democratic Party of Poland and

Anatoli, Jacob

2005-02-05T14:39:00.000-08:00

Anatoli was especially interested in the works of the 12th-century Arab physician Averro�s' and translated some of them from the Arabic. Anatoli probably shared Averro�s belief that religion and philosophy move in similar directions, even though they are outwardly different in many respects,

Bingham, Amelia

2005-02-04T03:49:00.000-08:00

Amelia Swilley left Ohio Wesleyan University in 1890 when she was encouraged by Lloyd Bingham, manager of a traveling professional theatrical company, to go on the stage.

Pitman Shorthand

2005-02-03T02:50:00.000-08:00

System of rapid writing based on the sounds of words (i.e., the phonetic principle) rather than on conventional spellings. Invented by Sir Isaac Pitman, an English educator, the Pitman shorthand method was first published in 1837 as Stenographic Sound Hand. Pitman's system classifies the sounds of a language into basic groups and makes use of simple abbreviations for rapidity.

Armour

2005-02-02T14:39:00.000-08:00

Types of armour generally fall into one of three main categories: (1) armour made of leather, fabric, or mixed layers of both, sometimes reinforced by quilting or felt, (2) mail, made of interwoven rings of iron or steel,

Augustan Age

2005-02-01T07:56:00.000-08:00

One of the most illustrious periods in Latin literary history, from approximately 43 BC to AD 18; together with the preceding Ciceronian period (q.v.), it forms the Golden Age (q.v.) of Latin literature. Marked by civil peace and prosperity, the age reached its highest literary expression in poetry, a polished and sophisticated verse generally addressed to a patron or to the emperor

Aalto, Alvar

2005-01-31T14:45:00.000-08:00

Aalto, whose work exemplifies the best of 20th-century Scandinavian architecture, was one of the first to depart from the stiffly geometric designs common to the early period of the modern movement and to stress informality and personal expression. His style is regarded as both romantic and regional. He used complex forms and varied materials, acknowledged the character

Theatre, Western, Shamanism

2005-01-30T17:35:00.000-08:00

A second theory proposes that theatre evolved from shamanistic rituals that manifested to the audience a supernatural presence, as opposed to giving a symbolic representation of it. In this case the shaman, as actor/priest, was able to put himself into a trance and become a medium with the other world. He was believed to travel in the spirit world or be actually possessed

Sickle

2005-01-29T02:57:00.000-08:00

One of the most ancient of harvesting tools, consisting of a metal blade, usually curved, attached to a short wooden handle. The short handle forces the user to harvest in a stooped or squatting position. The longer-handled scythe, the user of which remains upright, evolved from the sickle. Harvesting with a sickle is very slow, but because of its simplicity and low cost,

Aidoo, Ama Ata

2005-01-28T17:23:00.000-08:00

Aidoo began to write seriously while an honours student at the University of Ghana (B.A., 1964). She won early recognition with a problem play, The Dilemma of a Ghost (1965), in which a Ghanaian student returning

Malcolm I

2005-01-27T21:25:00.000-08:00

Malcolm succeeded to the crown when his cousin Constantine II entered a monastery (943). He annexed Moray to the kingdom for the first time. After driving the Danes from York, the English king Edmund turned Cumbria over to Malcolm, apparently as a fief or seal of alliance. Later, when Norsemen again invaded the land, the Scots sent raids against

Textile, Napping and shearing

2005-01-26T17:09:00.000-08:00

Napping is a process that may be applied to woollens, cottons, spun silks, and spun rayons, including both woven and knitted types, to raise a velvety, soft surface. The process involves passing the fabric over revolving cylinders covered with fine wires that lift the short, loose fibres, usually from the weft yarns, to the surface, forming a nap. The process, which increases

Abel, Carl Friedrich

2005-01-25T16:57:00.000-08:00

After playing in the Dresden court orchestra (1743 - 58), Abel went to London in 1759 and became chamber musician to Queen Charlotte in 1764. When J.C. Bach arrived in London in 1762, they became friends and in 1765 established the �Bach and Abel� concerts

Wideman, John Edgar

2005-01-24T13:10:00.000-08:00

Until the age of 10, Wideman lived in Homewood, a black section of Pittsburgh, Pa., which later became the setting of many of his novels. An outstanding scholar and athlete at the University of Pennsylvania (B.A., 1963), he became

Paddington

2005-01-23T11:08:00.000-08:00

The area has been inhabited since ancient times, and it was crossed by the Roman highways now roughly

Adams, Samuel Hopkins

2005-01-22T14:26:00.000-08:00

One of the so-called muckrakers of the period, Adams

Pohjanmaa

2005-01-21T13:42:00.000-08:00

Also called �Ostrobothnia, or Ostrobothnian Plain, �Swedish ��sterbotten, � lowland plain in Vaasa and Oulu l��nit (provinces), western Finland, along the Gulf of Bothnia. Pohjanmaa is about 60 miles (100 km) wide and 160 miles (257 km) long. It consists of flat plains of sand and clay soil that are broken by rivers and bog areas. It is drained mainly by the Lapuan, Kyr�n, and Iso rivers, which flow to the Gulf of Bothnia. The lowlands are divided between agricultural

Moore

2005-01-20T02:56:00.000-08:00

City, Cleveland county, central Oklahoma, U.S., a southern suburb of Oklahoma City. First settled in 1887 and originally called Verbeck, it was renamed for a conductor of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. Its population remained small until the 1960s when planned urban and industrial development began. Industries include the manufacture of aircraft parts, building

Beagle

2005-01-19T04:40:00.000-08:00

HMS Beagle (the third of nine vessels to bear this name) was launched on May 11, 1820, at Woolwich, the

Giotto Di Bondone

2005-01-18T09:50:00.000-08:00

The most important Italian painter of the 14th century, whose works point to the innovations of the Renaissance style that developed a century later. For almost seven centuries Giotto has been revered as the father of European painting and the first of the great Italian masters. He is believed to have been a pupil of the

Sacramento

2005-01-17T08:43:00.000-08:00

City, capital of California, U.S., seat (1850) of Sacramento county, in the Central Valley, where the Sacramento and American rivers meet. John Augustus Sutter established the colony of New Helvetia in 1839 on the site, a Mexican land grant, and between 1840 and 1842 built a palisaded trading post known as Sutter's Fort. His community, initially populated by fellow Swiss immigrants, prospered

Biblical Literature, Determination of the canon in the 4th century

2005-01-16T04:50:00.000-08:00

Athanasius, a 4th-century bishop of Alexandria and a significant theologian, delimited the canon and settled the strife between East and West. On a principle of inclusiveness, both Revelation and Hebrews (as part of the Pauline corpus) were accepted. The 27 books of the New Testament - and they only - were declared canonical. In the Greek churches there was still controversy

East Aurora

2005-01-15T10:18:00.000-08:00

Village, Erie county, western New York, U.S. It lies 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Buffalo and, oddly enough, 90 miles (145 km) west of Aurora. Settled in 1804, it was incorporated as Willink in 1849 and as East Aurora in 1874. Inspired by the English designer William Morris and his communal Kelmscott Press, the editor and publisher Elbert Hubbard established the Roycroft Press in East Aurora in 1893; he later

Gilbert Islands

2005-01-14T16:17:00.000-08:00

Formerly �Kingsmill, � group of 16 coral atolls, part of Kiribati, in the west central Pacific Ocean 2,800 mi (4,500 km) northeast of Australia. The islands - Makin, Butaritari, Marakei, Abaiang, Tarawa, Maiana, Abemama, Kuria, Aranuka, Nonouti, Tabiteuea, Beru, Nikunau, Onotoa, Tamana, and Arorae - occupy a total land area of 105 sq mi (272 sq km). Low-lying, they are covered with coconut palm and pandanus. Rainfall varies from 80 to

Polgar, Judit

2005-01-13T05:02:00.000-08:00

Apart from her gold-medal-winning appearances for the Hungarian women's Olympiad teams of 1988 and 1990, Polgar

Nagel, Ernest

2005-01-11T04:49:00.000-08:00

Formerly an exponent of logical realism, Nagel later abandoned a realistic ontology for an empirical and theoretical

Business And Industry Review

2005-01-10T10:09:00.000-08:00

Allegheny Mountains

2005-01-09T19:11:00.000-08:00

Also called �Alleghenies, � mountainous eastern part of the Allegheny Plateau in the Appalachian Mountains, U.S. The Allegheny range extends south-southwestward for more than 500 miles (800 km) from north-central Pennsylvania to southwestern Virginia. Rising to Mount Davis (3,213 feet [979 m]; highest point in Pennsylvania) and Spruce Knob (4,862 feet [1,482 m]; highest point in West Virginia), the mountains consist of nearly

Grabski, Wladyslaw

2005-01-08T11:11:00.000-08:00

A Socialist in his youth, Grabski later joined the National Democracy Party and was elected a member of three successive sessions of the Duma (1906 - 12), the legislative body of the Russian Empire, of which

Christian Iv

2005-01-07T18:30:00.000-08:00

King of Denmark and Norway (1588 - 1648), who led two unsuccessful wars against Sweden and brought disaster upon his country by leading it into the Thirty Years' War. He energetically promoted trade and shipping, left a national heritage of fine buildings, and won repute as a plucky, hard-drinking man of grim wit and great

Christian Iv

2005-01-06T05:22:00.000-08:00

Any of a number of contagious diseases that are most commonly acquired in sexual intercourse. See sexually transmitted disease.

Fielding, William Stevens

2005-01-05T06:12:00.000-08:00

In 1864 Fielding joined the staff of the Halifax Morning Chronicle, the leading Liberal newspaper in Nova Scotia, where for 20 years he worked in various departments. From 1884 to 1896 Fielding was premier of Nova Scotia. An opponent

Medicine, Japan

2005-01-04T17:26:00.000-08:00

Japan's Ministry of Health and Welfare directs public health programs at the national level, maintaining close coordination among the fields of preventive medicine, medical care, and welfare and health insurance. The departments of health of the prefectures and of the largest municipalities operate health centres. The integrated community health programs

Benin, Bight Of

2005-01-03T04:07:00.000-08:00

Also called �Bight Of Bonny, � bay of the Atlantic Ocean on the western African coast that extends eastward for about 400 miles (640 km) from Cape St. Paul (Ghana) to the Nun outlet of the Niger River (Nigeria). It lies within the Gulf of Guinea and is bordered by southeastern Ghana, Togo, Benin, and southwestern Nigeria. The bay receives a portion of the Niger River delta and also the Sio, Haho, Mono, Couffo, Ou�m�, Benin,

Aerospace Engineering

2005-01-02T01:19:00.000-08:00

In most countries, governments are the aerospace industry's largest customers, and most engineers work on the design of military vehicles. The largest demand for aerospace engineers comes from the transport and fighter aircraft, missile, spacecraft, and general aviation industries. The typical aerospace engineer holds a bachelor's degree, but there are many engineers

G.m.

2005-01-01T07:37:00.000-08:00

Recipient of the George Medal, a British decoration for valour. See George Cross.

Fruit Spot

2004-12-31T15:27:00.000-08:00

Symptom of plant disease, usually caused by fungi and bacteria. A spot is a definite, localized area. Spots frequently enlarge and merge to form a rot, a softening discoloration and often a disintegration of tissue. All fruits are susceptible; infection commonly starts at a wound, the stem end, or the underside. Bacterial decays that are caused

Puerta Del Sol

2004-12-30T18:57:00.000-08:00

Main plaza of Madrid, Spain. It was reputedly named for a gate (puerta) that stood there until 1510 and had on its front a representation of the sun (sol). Throughout Madrid's history the square has been the focal point of transportation and of intellectual and economic activity. It was the first part of the city to be equipped with modern conveniences (electric lights, streetcars)

Berceuse

2004-12-29T11:56:00.000-08:00

(French: �lullaby�), musical composition, typically of the 19th century, having the character of a lullaby. While the word appears to imply no particular formal pattern, rocking rhythms in 6/8 time are common not only in the vocal prototype but also in its stylized instrumental counterparts, usually for piano. A well-known example of the latter is Fr�d�ric Chopin's Berceuse,

Vasily Iii

2004-12-27T10:53:00.000-08:00

In full� Vasily Ivanovich � grand prince of Moscow from 1505 to 1533. Succeeding his father, Ivan III (ruled Moscow 1462 - 1505), Vasily completed his father's policy of consolidating the numerous independent Russian principalities into a united Muscovite state by annexing Pskov (1510), Ryazan (1517), and Starodub and Novgorod-Seversk (now Novgorod-Seversky) by 1523. He also strengthened his growing state by capturing

Punjab

2004-12-26T10:48:00.000-08:00

The foundations of the present Punjab (historical Pa�jab) were laid by Banda Singh Bahadur, a hermit who became a military leader and, with his fighting band of Sikhs, temporarily liberated the eastern part of the province from Mughal rule in 1709 - 10. Banda Singh's defeat and execution in 1716 were followed by a prolonged struggle between the Sikhs on one side and the Mughals and Afghans

Literary Criticism, Criticism and knowledge

2004-12-25T00:37:00.000-08:00

The debate over poetic truth may illustrate how modern discussion is beholden to extraliterary knowledge. Critics have never ceased disputing whether literature depicts the world correctly, incorrectly, or not at all, and the dispute has often had more to do with the support or condemnation of specific authors than with ascertainable facts about mimesis. Today

China, Period of division

2004-12-24T02:16:00.000-08:00

The most extensive modern account of the period of division is that found in the general history by Franke cited above, vol. 2, with copious notes in vol. 3; this is a traditional chronological history, which pays little attention to nonpolitical matters and absolutely none to modern historical writing on the period in Chinese and Japanese. Other works on this important period include Wolfram Eberhard, Das Toba-Reich Nordchinas: eine soziologische Untersuchung (1949), a Western-language study on the T'o-pa Wei - controversial and interesting but highly technical; W.J.F. Jenner, Memories of Loyang (1981), a political history of the Wei dynasty during the Pei-ch'ao (Northern Dynasties) period; �tienne Balazs, �Les Courants intellectuels en Chine au IIIe si�cle de notre �re,� �tudes Asiatiques, vol. 2 (1948), the best Western-language study on the rise of �Neo-Taoism� and other schools of thought after the breakdown of the Han Empire; Henri Maspero, Taoism and Chinese Religion (1983; originally published in French, 1950), a collection of essays dealing mainly with T'ang dynasty Taoism, still the most important general survey of the Taoist religion of this period, written mainly in the 1930s and '40s by a great authority for the general public; Holmes Welch, Taoism: The Parting of the Way, rev. ed. (1965), a general history of the Taoist movement with about one-third of the book devoted to the development of Taoist religion in the Six Dynasties period; Michel Strickmann, Le Tao�sme du Mao Chan: chronique d'une r�v�lation (1981), a scholarly account of one of the main schools of medieval Taoism; Arthur F. Wright, Buddhism in Chinese History (1959, reprinted 1971), a popular but authoritative survey of Chinese Buddhism as a whole, two chapters of which are devoted to the Six Dynasties period; Kenneth K.S. Chen, Buddhism in China (1964, reprinted 1972), an extensive history of Chinese Buddhism by an eminent specialist; Erik Z�rcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, 2 vol. (1959, reprinted 1972), a detailed, rather technical study of the formation of gentry Buddhism; and Jacques Gernet, Les Aspects �conomiques du bouddhisme dans la soci�t� chinoise du Ve au Xe si�cle (1956), an indispensable but rather technical work on the economic functions of the Buddhist monasteries from the 5th to the 10th century.

Dog, Jackals

2004-12-23T23:54:00.000-08:00

There has been some disagreement over the years about whether the jackal is a true canid, but the four known varieties are now thought to be part of the same genus. Jackals are native from southeastern Europe into southern Asia, India, and Africa. The best-known variety is the golden jackal, which is a shimmery rust-gold in colour. Jackals are fleet-footed

Nicholas Of Autrecourt

2004-12-22T13:57:00.000-08:00

Nicholas was an advanced student in liberal arts and philosophy at the Sorbonne faculty of the University of Paris from 1320 to 1327. He became one of the most notable

Tunnels And Underground Excavations, Rock bolts

2004-12-21T16:16:00.000-08:00

Rock bolts are used to reinforce jointed rock much as reinforcing bars supply tensile resistance in reinforced concrete. After early trials about 1920, they were developed in the 1940s for strengthening laminated roof strata in mines. For public works their use has increased rapidly since 1955, as confidence has developed from two independent pioneering applications, both

Maurist

2004-12-20T17:03:00.000-08:00

Member of a congregation of French Benedictine monks founded in 1618 and devoted to strict observance of the Benedictine Rule and especially to historical and ecclesiastical scholarship. Dom Gregory Tarrisse (1575 - 1648), the first president, desired to make scholarship the congregation's distinguishing feature; he organized schools of training and set up their headquarters

Sa'adia Ben Joseph

2004-12-19T10:09:00.000-08:00

Little is known of Sa'adia's early years. When he departed from Egypt, at the age of about 23, he left behind, besides his wife and two sons, a distinguished group of devoted students. By that time he had already composed a Hebrew-Arabic dictionary, later expanded and issued under the name ha-Egron. For unknown reasons he migrated to Palestine. There he found a growing community

Switzerland, Prehistoric Switzerland

2004-12-18T03:09:00.000-08:00

Though a hand wedge fashioned by Paleolithic hunters, found at Pratteln near Basel in 1974, is at least 350,000 years old, human habitation in Switzerland was not significant until the last glacial period, the W�rm, approximately 30,000 years ago. At that time most of the land was covered by ice, many thousands of feet deep that flowed down from the Alps. But during interglacial periods

Arabia, History Of, Arabia since 1962

2004-12-17T01:17:00.000-08:00

Political changes in Yemen and Saudi Arabia during the early 1960s epitomized a vast transformation of the Arabian Peninsula that affected the lives of most of its inhabitants. In 1962 Egyptian-trained Yemeni officers led a coup d'�tat and invited Egypt to send troops to support the republic. The imam's forces, although backed by Saudi Arabia during five years of war against

W.h., Mr.

2004-12-16T11:22:00.000-08:00

The mystery of his identity has tantalized generations of biographers and critics,

Colette

2004-12-15T16:47:00.000-08:00

Colette

Finland, The postwar period

2004-12-14T00:42:00.000-08:00

After the armistice in 1944 a coalition government was formed under the leadership of Juho Kusti Paasikivi. When conditions had been stabilized, Mannerheim resigned, and Paasikivi was elected president in his place in 1946. In 1956 the leader of the Agrarian Party, Urho Kekkonen, who acted as prime minister a number of times during the period 1950 to 1956, was elected president. He was reelected

Permafrost, Effects of climate

2004-12-13T03:34:00.000-08:00

The most conspicuous change in thickness of permafrost is related to climate. At Barrow, Alaska, U.S., the mean annual air temperature is -12� C (10� F), and the thickness is 400 metres. At Fairbanks, Alaska, in the discontinuous zone of permafrost in central Alaska, the mean annual air temperature is -3� C (27� F), and the thickness is about 90 metres. Near the southern border of permafrost, the mean

Nevada, Climate

2004-12-12T13:14:00.000-08:00

The high Sierras along the state's western boundary often cause clouds of Pacific origin to drop their moisture before reaching Nevada, thus producing a semiarid climate. The driest regions are in the southeast and near Carson Sink, where annual rainfall seldom exceeds four inches (100 millimetres). The northeast has as little as eight inches of precipitation, whereas

Kwangju

2004-12-11T23:28:00.000-08:00

Also spelled �Gwangju, � city and provincial capital, South Cholla do (province), southwestern South Korea. It has the status of a special city (area 193 square miles [501 square km]) under the direct control of the home minister, with administrative status equal to that of a province. An old city on the edge of the mountainous area of South Cholla province, it has been a centre of trade and of local administration

Evans, Walker

2004-12-10T15:23:00.000-08:00

American photographer, important primarily for documenting the effects of economic depression in the American South and photographically interpreting American folk architecture. His approach to photography was largely formed by the documentary photographs of the French photographer Eug�ne Atget, whose influence